Marriage and Americans

Alicia Evans March 10, 2013 Review on Argo Mrs. Bornac MWF When the movie Argo began to play I thought to myself this movie may not have my interest. The Iran’s were very aggressive toward the Americans because they felt as if we were trying to harm them. I did not understand the language they were speaking. However, the film should have made the CC pop up at the bottom of the screen so we could at least read their conversations.When the Americans began to burn all of the files they had I started to question were they really trying to help the Iran’s or not. The Iran’s started to get serious by shutting the power off in the buildings so the Americans could not talk to anyone. I began to get curious about what would happen next. There were Americans still held hostage sixty-nine days later. Six Americans snuck out the back door because going through any other door would not have been a success. I wondered where they would go.They went to a safe place with a marrie d couple. I was happy the couple wanted to help them back to their freedom state. When the Iran’s noticed they were missing six Americans I knew they would try their best to find them. I felt as if they Guy Tony were a strong man to try and save those six Americans. He could have been home with his wife and little boy instead he wanted to help. Tony missed his son’s call and when he was able to call back no one was home. That was heart touching because he loves his family.Tony sent his son a happy birthday card and that was great. He watched television with his son also when they were on the phone some nights. Tony’s wife and son missed him a lot. The streets of Iran were dangerous. I could not visit that place because they obviously do not like Americans at all. Once I seen the bodies hanging from the cranium machinery my heart dropped. Those people do not deserve to die the way they did. Also the large Army trucks the Iranians drove around in was terrifying to me.They had these harsh facial expressions as they would stare at you into your eyes. When Tony introduced himself as Kevin Hartkins to the six Americans they were not excited at all. I would have been cautious because they were taking a chance with their lives. Each of the Americans was very afraid and I could tell by their facial expressions. They did not know if they would be alive nor die because Tony was a random guy saying he is going to rescue them. When the CIA did not want to help Tony I felt it was wrong because those were innocent people.I think Tony played his part well to defend the six Americans. Even when they would not help him he kept striving to set those people free. I was so anxious when they made it to the airport. The Iranians were staring at their passports for a long time which made me sit at the end of my chair as I continued to watch. I thought they were not going to be able to leave the airport because the Iran police said the Argo movie had to be verifie d. Luckily they made it through and I was happy.It was a relief for me when the pilot made the announcement, â€Å"Clear of Iran. † Overall Argo was a great movie and each of the Americans was set free. It was well put together by the director and cast members. Argo was an enjoyable yet thrilling movie. There were a couple times I was on the edge. I was eager to see what would happen next. Also I was frightened that the Americans were not going to make it back to the United States but they did. I would recommend watching this movie to see what our people go through.

Strengths, Weaknesses of One of the Perspectives of Psychology

Stephanie Graham Psy-201 October 7, 2012 â€Å"What Are The Strengths And Weaknesses Of One Of The Perspectives Of Psychology† Behaviorism is one point of view in psychology directed to a scientific study of the behaviors of man and animal, and is insisted that the cause of our actions and personality lies in our environment, rather than our biology. Behaviorism, also referred to as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorist believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behavior. There are two types of conditioning, classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning was studied by the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov, he demonstrated that dogs could learn to associate a neutral stimulus, such as the sound of a bell, with an automatic behavior, such as reflexively salivating to food. He believ ed he had discovered the mechanism by which all behaviors were learned. B. F.Skinner investigated operant conditioning of voluntary and involuntary behavior is a form of learning in which an individuals behavior is modified through its consequences, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment. He called his approach to psychology â€Å"radical behaviorism,† where everything a person does, says, and feels constitutes behavior. Even if the behavior is unobservable it can be subjected to experimental analysis. Skinner demonstrated that our social environment is filled with reinforcing and punishing consequences that shape our behavior.For example many people don't enjoy getting up early to go to work every day, but they do it to get the reward: a paycheck. They are being rewarded for good behavior. If some one didn't show up to work, or not call in that person may be fired and not receive a paycheck. This would be a punishment for their behavior. Growing up my parents would tell me that hard work gets good results. Getting straight A's on my report card I received some incentives. If I didn't get into any trouble I received more incentives as well.But if got a bad grade on a homework assignment or test they would take away incentives or any rewards. Without knowing it I grew up on the operant conditioning and adapted it to my daily life where hard work just seemed natural and has some incentives. Weaknesses: Behaviorism examines human and nonhuman beings from the point of view of the behavior they demonstrate. Behaviorism is the understanding of behavior of people and animals in their every movement, emotional response/ reaction, the way they think.Environment plays a great role in the life of people, but it is hard to interpret the behavior of people only focusing on the environmental factor. In some ways behaviorism neglects the individualism of every person making a general behavioral pattern for everybody. A weakness is in Skinners op erant conditioning theory, is the fact that it does not always work. A person can be pretending they stopped the behavior just to receive the reward. If you give a person a reward for good behavior, that person will expect a reward every time.Strengths: One main strength of the behaviorist approach is that it focuses only on behavior that can be observed and manipulated in a controlled environment. Behaviorism tends to predict the behavior in certain circumstances. So having the possibility to predict would give a person the ability to control behavior, avoiding any unnecessary reactions. People are more aware of how to control behavior which has become very important in parenting, and useful when helping kids reactions adapt more socially with others.Behaviorism has helped bring the â€Å"desired outcome† with the help of reinforcement, and punishment. It is a simple concept of behavior using the principals such as classical and operant conditioning. Pavlov's approach aims t o study behavior that is observable and directly measurable. Behaviorism has a tremendous contribution to the development of psychology. As in every perspective approach, study, or theory has its advantages, disadvantages, strengths and weaknesses. What works for one person may not work for another.But it is just as important in helping people. Skinner and Pavlov both had great techniques in trying to recognize, predict, and control behaviors. Both have their strengths and weaknesses. You could say the Pavlov's theories were groundbreaking in a sense however even under favorable conditions however a person and especially an animal cannot be expected to do the exact same thing every time regardless of a like result. Variable change always has to be accounted for. Such as lack of interest or tiredness.Skinner was on a better tract in my opinion with the rewarding/punishment of behavior. Some issues could arise there as well such as the interpretation of rewards by the individual and j ust like Pavlov you would have to change them or interest would be lost after eventually. Depending on circumstances both seem very applicable on a case by case basis both having their strengths and weaknesses both very valid points but must be determined by what is to be achieved and who it is being done on.

Principles of Supporting Change in a Business Environment Essay

Change occurs frequently and rapidly in the workplace. Change in business has become the norm and businesses need to evolve to keep up with the demands of the modern world. Most of the people regard change as intimidating. It is often natural. It has great significance in business thus change does bring good for the business. So why does change happens? There are two main reasons for the changes in a business environment: 1. Reactive change- pressure to change (PEST) – POLITICAL – it is when government changes policies, regulation, etc which business needs to adapt to stay within the new laws; international changes or conflicts force business to change; legislations whether they domestic or international or future; – ECONOMIC- it is when domestic or international competitor’s behavior, trends or tax and interest rates change which forces the changes in the business; – SOCIAL- it often happens when customers demands, buying preferences change, as well as when events, media views or advertising makes business Identify the main reasons for reviewing working methods, products and / or services in a business environment. Once your business is established and running well, you may be inclined to let things continue to run as they are. However, it’s actually time to plan again. After the crucial early stages, you should regularly review your progress, identify how you can make the most of the market position you’ve established and decide where to take your business next. You will need to revisit and update your business plan with your new strategy in mind and make sure you introduce the developments you’ve noted. Reviewing your progress will be particularly useful if you feel: †¢ uncertain about how well the business is performing †¢ unsure if you’re getting the most out of the business or making the most of market opportunities †¢ your business plan may be out of date, e. g. you haven’t updated it since you started trading †¢ your business is moving in a direction different to the one you had planned †¢ the business may be becoming unwieldy or unresponsive to market demands It is also useful if you have decided that your company is ready to move on to  another level. When a business is going through change: a) Describe the different types of support that people may need. Everyone is different that is way some people may find change as something stimulating and exciting making them perform better others may find it very hard and difficult to adapt. This is way this type of people need extra time and support to get use to change happening in the work place. Theory suggests that these people will go through what is called: Change Performance Curve: Shock – The initial reaction can sometimes be shock, this will automatically reduce the individuals performance as they will fear the unknown. Denial – This is when the individual will stay focused in the past and the ‘way things used to be done’. The fear of the ‘new way’ may cause the individual to continue to complete their tasks the ‘old way’. Anger – Once the initial feelings have been dealt with denial slowly turns to anger. Depression – Once the individual finally realises that the change is going to happen, they enter the depression stage The individual accepts that the change is happening. Integration But there are different types of support that can help people during change. These include: †¢ Effective planning ( plan the change an inform people of the change) †¢ Participation ( let people be involved in the process) †¢ Training or retraining ( provide training so stuff if prepared for new tasks) †¢ Encouragement or other supportive behaviours ( provide support by encouraging not criticizing- good communication can really help people accept a change more quickly. Counselling or coaching b) Explain the benefits of working with others. As said above good communication can really help people accept a change more quickly. Working as a team can really help to adapt to change and helps people get through Change Performance Curve easier as they can help each other in dealing with new and more complex tasks. You will be able to help support your colleagues if they are finding something challenging and vice versa. It is important to remember that to support and work with colleagues effectively you will need to keep a positive outlook yourself. Understand how to respond to change in a business environment 1. In relation to your current business environment (or one that you are familiar with): a) Explain why you should respond positively to changes in working methods. When change occurs in a business it is important to see it as something positive. This will help to make the process a lot easier, even though the benefits may not be immediately obvious. If employees see change as a bad thing, they will soon become demotivated, which will affect The quality and efficiency of the business. While sometimes it may be difficult to accept change, employees need to be able to adapt to whatever they are presented with. Businesses need employees who have positive attitudes; they want people who say ‘I can do that’ not ‘I can’t do that’. A positive attitude can go a long way to help solve problems in difficult situations. b) Explain why you should respond positively to changes in products or services. Changes can be either expected or unexpected but nowadays change is a permanent phenomenon. I work in retail and I know that changes in this type of business is someting that cannot be forgotten or ignored. As an employee of one of the biggest beauty retailer in the UK I see almost everyday changes in the work place that take place to improve products and services we provide. I know it is very important to keep up with customers‘ demands and market innovations. It is very important to stay positive about this changes to make sure you do your best to help the business you work for improve and stay on top along other similar businesses. Staying positive also helps to secure you job position as employers want to have employees who are willing to adapt and are positive about their work and personal development. c) Identify ways of responding positively to change. Every employee seeks positive response to change from their employees. Ways of responding positively to change are: †¢ A willingness to learn(understanding the importance of learning new information for both current and future problem solving and decision making.

Accounting cousework Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Accounting cousework - Coursework Example The company chosen in this report is Google. The two ways to improve the performance of a company is through either effectiveness or efficiency. These two similar sounding words are actually much different in meaning and a business can successfully reach its goal if it does these two things successfully. Efficiency refers to doing things right in the least time possible. Efficiency measures the time it takes to do something (Martin, 2012). While inefficient employees take long time in doing a work, efficient employee and manager do a given task in the least time possible using the least amount of resources using certain time saving strategies. Effectiveness refers to doing things in the right way so that particular results are derived (Lawler, 2012.). Effectiveness actually refers to the level of results that is derived from a company’s workforce. Employees who demonstrate effectiveness produces high quality results. To reach position of higher growth a company goes in for effectiveness and efficiency. A company which goes in for only efficiency or only effectiveness does not reach the goal. For achieving growth and desired objective the employees should be efficient and effective at the same time. If the employees of a company are efficient but effective they will not be able to achieve the desired output. Similar is the case of the employees who are effective but not efficient. The employees who are efficient but not effective will be able to achieve a result first but the result achieved will not be the desired one. Similarly the employees who are effective but not efficient will be able to achieve the result but the time taken by them will be far greater. Thus for the growth of the company it is required that the employees are efficient as well as effective. The asset turnover ratio of a company represents how efficiently the company uses the assets of the company in generating revenue. The numerator of

Article Review 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Article Review 1 - Essay Example The study by The Employment Policies Institute, a nonprofit research organization, proves that for every 10 per cent increase, the unemployment among minorities like the Hispanics, teenagers and African Americans has increased considerably. Moreover, low-skilled unemployment among high school drop-outs has also grown. Studies by Dr. David Neumark, a University of California, Irvine economist, support these findings and states that the law has â€Å"the largest negative effects on low-skilled employees, such as teens and minority teens†. By destroying the opportunities of entry-level jobs for many, the law robs them of the right to learn skills and develop good work habits which would help them develop a career. James Sherk, a labour policy analyst at the Heritage Foundation, points out that the law also has the negative effect of reducing many workers’ job opportunities and working hours. He observes that â€Å"wage hikes cause businesses to reduce the number of workers they hire and the hours they ask their employees to work†. Though there are some workers who initially earned near the minimum wage experience gains, the general impact would be a negative one for those who seek entry-level jobs, as Neumark’s study suggests. According to the Hoover institution, 20 per cent could lose their jobs unless there are offsetting tax cuts for small businesses. Lambro points out that there is an increasing tendency among industries to replace workers with machines, computers and the internet facility, to avoid the extra expenses they would have to meet by paying the minimum wages to a large number of people. Such job reduction will accelerate if the law continues to impose burde n on small businesses. Moreover, Sherk’s study also points out that the general benefactors of the law are not poor, dispossessed people, but teenagers from affluent families. This again reduces the

Prison life and strategies (proposal) Research Paper

Prison life and strategies (proposal) - Research Paper Example prisons have long been a fixture of the American criminal justice system, so-called for profit prisons are a relatively new construct that have begun to have a profound affect on the way that the criminal justice system operates. For instance, whereas a state-run prison facility may have very stringent code of ethics with regards to the prison guards that serve it, a for profit prison is likely to have a much more lax interpretation of such statutes and practices. Furthermore, where the state prison is concerning with rehabilitating and re-introducing the prisoner into the civilian population as a means to better society through the correctional action that has been effected, the for profit prison systems have no such interest and actually gain a high degree of revenue through an increased rate of recidivism. As such, the purpose of this brief research paper will be to review the problems associated with the increased levels of for profit prisons within the United States as well as t o offer key insights and solutions that may help to ameliorate these

Methods of Teaching Adult Education Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Methods of Teaching Adult Education - Assignment Example In this assignment, we will discuss just three of the best and modern methods that can be used to teach employees to recycle as much of the organizations waste as possible. The methods to be discussed include the use of classroom lectures and assignments, use of demonstrations, and group works. The paper will also go ahead to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each of these methods used. Under this method, the employees, who will be the adult learners, will be confined in a classroom or a conference hall and be subjected to a lecture. The lecture material will be prepared with the consideration that will majorly touch on the theoretical view of wastes and waste management. This method will be used when conveying a general information to the entire lot of the employees that could otherwise be hard to handle when using some other methods that are only effective for a small number of learners. The basic information and briefing about waste management and recycling will be conveyed here. However, when using this method with the adults, the period of administering the lecture must be short. When time is made shorter, the level of concentration of the learners will be high, therefore, the effectiveness of the method will be achieved. The lecture method will encourage participation by the adult learners where they will be able to ask questions to improve their content mastery and understanding. The method will be one of the best methods to use in teaching this topic to the employees since it will be easy to use real life examples of other waste recycling that have been done before and such will be able to put emphasis on the learning outcomes. The method also combines lectures with assignments, thereby, acting as an evaluative method for the learners. It can, therefore, easily tell whether the learners have understood the learning

Why affirmative action is still needed in 2012 Essay

Why affirmative action is still needed in 2012 - Essay Example Affirmative action is a policy by which marginalized groups (with marginalization usually defined on the basis of gender or race or class) are given preferential treatment, usually in the form of quotas. For example, in universities, a set quota may be allocated to, for example, black people or Latin Americans in order to create a heterogeneous atmosphere and increase possibilities for racial minorities. Or a gender quota might be imposed in companies, to ensure an equal number of men and women. Whilst the focal point of affirmative action is to improve the lives of those who belong to historically marginalized sectors, one very important aim as well of this policy and perhaps its long-term goal is to achieve social integration, to break down stereotypes and biases, and to foster a more gender-fair and color-blind society. To quote Coate and Loury, in workplace affirmative action, â€Å"an important component of this question would seem to be the impact of affirmative action on empl oyers’ stereotypes about the capabilities of minority workers. If affirmative action serves to break down negative stereotypes, then to the extent that these underlie discrimination, a temporary program of affirmative action should lead to permanent gains for minorities† (1220). What must be remembered, however, if we are to break down these stereotypes by any sort of policy, is that these stereotypes did not take place overnight, but are the products or outcomes of socially-reproduced perceptions. Women have been considered as the weaker sex, unable to carry out masculine tasks and duties requiring intellectual development. In the past, a little girl would learn from her mother that a woman’s place was at home – doing household work like cooking and cleaning and watching over young children. Indeed, societal norms have greatly affected women in many cultures. Women, in most cultures, are considered to be inferior, a situation that has continued to hinder their career progress. In many societies, men and women are assigned distinct social roles which are restricted by certain norms. The perception of the role of women in the workforce has widely changed over time in the society. Historically, the society viewed women society as in the home taking care of the husband and children. Social norms required the woman to be submissive to the husband and should not leave the home for work. Social norms treated women traits as meek and submissive, and work, especially in demanding fields like engineering, would make them lose the traits. Hence, this discouraged women to work in demanding occupations like engineering, science, and mathematics with low pay. We must bear in mind that these â€Å"dichotomous, mutually exclusive categories that shape our understanding of the world are gendered and they are key to the production and reproduction of violence at all levels† (Confrontini 333). This cultural pressure to be a homemaker and not to aspire to work professionally or to yearn for achievements such as those done by men was what impacted on access to education by girls vis a vis boys. According to the Women’s International Center: Formal education for girls historically has been secondary to that for boys. In colonial America girls learned to read and write at dame schools. They could attend the master's schools for boys when there was room, usually during the summer when most of the boys were working. By the end of the 19th century, however, the number of women

Theoretical Matrix of Organizational Change Research Paper

Theoretical Matrix of Organizational Change - Research Paper Example However, it should be noted that the contribution of these people is vital for effective change to take place. The fourth category is late majority, which mainly involves individuals who are interested in the results brought about by change before they can devote themselves to the change. The fifth one is laggards, which is composed of individuals who might disagree with efforts aimed at bringing change. In addition, they may also not be effective during the initial as well as the late change phases (Bate, Mendel and Robert, 2008). Kotter’s Theory According to Kotters' theory, change is made of emotional and situational components. Moreover, he developed a model of eight steps where through it change can be managed. These include the development of urgency, creation of a team to guide others, creation of vision, buying communication, enabling actions, creation of short-term advantages, not giving up and making the change stick. In addition, Kotter organizes every step into thr ee similar phases. The initial phase, which is the creation of climate that enables change, entails the first, second and third step. The next phase is engaging and enabling the entire organization; moreover, it entails step four, five and six while the last phase involves implementing and sustaining change; additionally, it encompasses the seventh and eighth steps. This theory involves gradual change that eventually becomes permanent, during the period of implementation; thus, an organization can enjoy various changes that are taking place. Therefore, when the change is complete it is anchored into an organization’s policies, and it becomes permanent. This theory mostly involves the person who comes up with the idea to make changes since it is his or her responsibility to see it successful. In addition, Kotter’s change theory is relevant in healthcare since it is capable of enhancing patient safety. Moreover, the theory offers opportunities for innovations capable of improving the safety of patients within the healthcare (Kotter, 2007). Lippitt’s Theory Lippitt came up with the seven-step theory, which lays much emphasis on the key roles, as well as responsibilities of change agent; however, there is a continuous exchange of information all through the process. Moreover, it commences with diagnosis of the problem whereby the problem is detected, and raises the organizations’ concern. After the diagnosis, the motivation and capability for change is assessed. Therefore, assessment of resources as well as motivation of the agent of change is the step that follows. The next step entails choosing change objects that are progressive; however, there is also the development of action plans and establishment of strategies. Change agent’s role ought to be selected and understood clearly by every party in order to ensure that clear expectations are made; therefore, maintaining change then follows. Effective communications, as well as c oordination of groups, are vital components in this phase. Finally, change agent ought to pull steadily out from their major roles with time. Therefore, this can take place when change has become part of the culture of the organization (Petersen & Pedersen n.d). However, after the change has been implemented it should be included in an organization’s rules and policies to make it part of the company. The Theories Application Lippit’

Knowledge Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6

Knowledge Management - Essay Example Some of the examples of changing the culture of an organization include how all employees assembled in the main board room every Friday which was to be changed in the up coming quarter, owing to financial expenditures. They discussed organizational matters in a very informal manner but the Managing Director decided to do it in the form of a virtual group which was created and everyone was asked to subscribe it to receive instant updates (Drucker, Garvin, Dorothy, Straus & Brown, 1998). Similar cultural changes do take place within organizations and these are seen as normal measures since organizations are moving ahead with both short term changes as well as the strategic ones. The need is to know what the employees think about them and how ready and willing they would be to embrace the change that is coming about within the organizational cultural realms. As a leader, I would initiate the process of organizational change by finding out what I essentially want to achieve. When I am certain that the aspects that I want to attain are true and genuine for the sake of the organization, and that the change is a positive tangent, then I will manifest it in the truest possible way. I will take all the employees under my aegis and inform them of the management decision. When this has been done, I will ask the middle management to come up with certain policies which are for the betterment of the organization yet are inclined towards attaining a change that is driven by results. I will be making all-out measures to make sure that all employees are on board and provide as much clarity as possible in order to speed up actions. Each of these stages can take up to about 15 days which would mean that the organizational change is a process spanning up to about 3 months. Since there would be five to six different steps that will be undertaken

Starbucks Customer Service Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Starbucks Customer Service - Essay Example An enterprise that has succeeded in the beverage business by providing superb customer service is Starbucks. This paper analyses the customer service at Starbucks Incorporated. At Starbucks customer service is not just a business function it is integrated into the corporate culture. This company whose core business is selling quality coffee beverages has become a global icon of popular culture in the United States and worldwide. At Starbucks coffee is not just a drink, it is a complete experience. Starbucks has expanded worldwide and currently has operations in 41 countries with a total of 10,295 outlet stores operating as wholly owned or licensing agreements (Starbucks). People go to Starbucks because it offers an eccentric comfortable atmosphere that is created by the company’s partners (employees). Starbucks offers a variety of the best tasting top quality coffees in the world. The clients are enticed to stay around the stores and hangout to enjoy some of the company’s other products and services such as coffee merchandise, fresh foods, consumer and entertainment products which include high speed wireless internet access (Starbucks). Customer service is a strategy that is integrated in the entire supply chain. At Starbucks the customer service philosophy starts with the coffee farmers & makers and its suppliers of materials. Starbucks builds close relationships of mutual benefit with its suppliers to ensure the company obtains the possible price and on time delivery. The company gets involved in the farming operation of its producers of coffee to assist and ensure the crops of coffee are produce at the highest possible worldwide standards. â€Å"The farmers, millers, exporters, and importers who grow process and or supply coffee to Starbucks share the same uncompromising commitment to quality we value† (Corporate Social Responsibility 6). Customer service at Starbucks also means serving the needs of the communities in

Cause and Consequences of urbanization in Scotland Essay Example for Free

Cause and Consequences of urbanization in Scotland Essay This essay will explore relevant cause and consequences of urbanisation in Scotland from 1700-1860. A dictionary-defined term would be the social process whereby cities grow and societies become more urban.(1. 30/08/2005). Scotland went through huge political and economical changes from the 1700s onwards. The country went from being a rural, agricultural society with an estimated population of 1.2 million in 1755, to being urbanised, with the population rising to over 2.6 million in 1841(Lenman, p281, 2001). This figure is what makes the urbanisation of Scotland so interesting. What were the main factors that caused the population to grow so rapidly? The expansion of population over such a short period and the social changes that occurred with this. The great Agrarian and Industrial revolutions had a major parts to play in the urbanisation of Scotland and this essay will show some enlightenment on why it was so profoundly noticeable in Scotland. Another point that will be investigated is the consequences of urbanisation, how the country ultimately became a modern capitalised country from its rural beginnings. Before and up until 1750, Scotland was very much a feudalistic country. Lords rented tenants enough land for them to produce food to survive. In return, the tenant would have to labour the Lords land as well as his own. The Landlord would reap the benefits, the tenant would survive, and as the majority of the people depended on the land as their lively-hood, it was a means to survival. As Devine states,_ In 1750 only one Scot in eight lived in a town (population of 4000 or over) and there was only four towns with more than 10000 inhabitants_ (Devine, 1999, p125). This shows the enormity of Scots who were living in rural communities, with the main labour being in agriculture, weaving and fishing. The changes to agriculture began with those known as the improvers, whose main outlook was to modernise the way the land was cultivated. As the population of the country began to accelerate quickly, the improvers were looking to produce mass food instead of the old way of cultivation. During the period between 1790-1840 new farming equipment was introduced and the land that was formally cultivated  using the infield-outfield and rug and furrow method was improved by enclosing the land into fields making it more productive for crops and for livestock Crop rotations were also introduced which was making use of the land at all times. The introduction of single tenant farming as opposed to ferm-touns meant the beginning of the clearances, as well as agricultural tools becoming more efficient. The introduction of threshing machines reduced manual labour and the Smalls plough a two horse plough replaced the Scots plough which required a team of oxen and horses (Devine, 1998, p138). These new ideas did create more food but they also left people homeless and jobless, as there was less labour needed, which left people no choice but to move on into the towns and cities where industry had began creating jobs. The growth of the towns and cities were intricately linked with the agrarian revolution as the mass population relied on the land for the food it produced. The other main point that Devine makes is that as the agricultural market started to accelerate, the need for exchange centres that provided legal, commerce and financial facilities for the rural communities became more prominent, so several towns including Perth, Ayr and Dumfries became the provider of these services. This again contributed to expansion of towns, as people were required to work and live in the towns to facilitate these positions (Devine 1998, p32) Therefore, we can gather that three major changes occurred at the same time and they contributed towards urbanisation in Scotland: The agrarian revolution along with the population growth, and the expansion of the manufacturing industry. As T.M Devine States, _Urbanisation could not have taken place without a substantial increase in food production to sustain the needs of those who did not cultivate their own food supplies. At the same time, agrarian productivity had to improve in order to release a growing proportion of the population for non-agricultural tasks in towns and cities._ (Devine, 1998, p32) Along with theses changes the manufacturing industry began to grow rapidly. Scotland was a major player in the transatlantic trading industry and due to its geographical position, it was booming in the tobacco trade and it would go on to prosper in cotton and linen too. Scotlands Geographical position at this time was very important as it is situated between the Atlantic and Europe, which meant trading from one to the other, was very successful. The two major factors of the Industrial Revolution were, the textile industry and the productivity of the steam engine, which was revolutionised by James Watt in 1769 (Watt James online, 2005). Textiles factories and coalmines could produce more goods and they did not need to be near a water source in order to run. Due to this, the larger towns and cities began to grow rapidly. _Greenock in 1700 had a population of 2000 and by 1831 it had rose to 27500._ _Glasgow went from 31700 to 147000._ _Paisley went from 6800 to 47000._ _Kilmarnock went from 4400 to 12700_ _Falkirk went from 3900 to 11500. All within the time period from 1740-1850 (Devine 1998, p35)_ The population growth over the short period is the most significant point here as this is what made urbanisation in Scotland different. There are many different factors that affected the population growth but some are more significant than others are. Irish Immigration was very prominent and the migration of people from the rural areas had a major impact. For example:_ The majority of the migrants were young adults more concentrated in the marriageable and childbearing age groups than were the native inhabitants. High Migration because of its age composition was therefore likely to fuel natural increase in the urban areas_.(Devine 1998,p41) At the same time the  highlanders were leaving the land either through force as the lords applied the new cultivation techniques to the land or through choice. The majority chose to immigrate to America; this did not affect the population growth as many Irish migrants were coming to Scotland looking for employment in the booming industries. _Urbanisation meant more jobs, a wider diversity of social contacts and infinitely greater colour and excitement in the lives of the masses_ (Devine 1998 p43) Mortality rates demonstrate their huge impact on population growth too. It has been suggested that lower death rates, through natural immunity to disease highly contributed to urbanisation, as in the early 1800s the death rate had fallen to 25 per 1000. This suggests that natural immunity and high levels of unemployment accelerated the population growth (Devine, 1998, p48). The effect of industrialisation was economically good for the country, but with it came poverty. The majority of the working class lived in overcrowded housing areas known as slums with no sanitation, and were rife with disease. As Devine argues, during periods of industrial recession when employment had slumped, there were also periods of disease epidemic. These began in 1817-1820(Typhoid), 1826-27(Typhoid) and in 1830-1832, a cholera epidemic that wiped out 10000 people. Periods of recession run parallel, the first being 1816-1818, 1825 and then 1836 (Devine, 1999, p168). In 1839, Death rates rose to 29 per 1000. People were forced to live in abominable living conditions with huge sanitations problems, the towns and cities could not cope with the urban growth and disease was the outcome. Overcrowded, sub-divided housing was a problematic issue in all the major Towns and Cities, especially in Glasgow. _I did not believe until I visited Glasgow, that so large an amount of filth, crim e, misery and disease existed in one spot in any one civilised country (_Butt J, 1987 p41-42). People were customised to living in filthy dark, damp squalid conditions amongst disease. As the periods of recession were leaving thousands out of work in a state of poverty, the poor law amendment act was passed in 1845, which replaced the old poor relief laws of the parishes taking responsibly for the  poor. The new law allowed a claim to be made under supervision of a board of examiners, it came in the form of indoor relief, which would be admission to a poorhouse if subject had lost the ability to work, and outdoor relief, which was for short-term illness, and this may have been in the form of payment or medicine. It could be argued that the industrial revolution was the birth of the working class and capitalism in this country. Those who owned the factories and docks made a great profit and a middle class lifestyle was adopted. This could be said to be the division of the classes, with the help of the industrial revolution, people developed a working class or middle class att itude, In conclusion, the evidence points out that several major factors occurred that accelerated the urban growth of the nation. The Agrarian revolution started the mass migrating and the industrial revolution provided the work force in order for capitalism to evolve. The consequences of urbanisation were overwhelming, yes the economy did thrive, but at what cost to the working class people, death, disease and misery.

Socio-Cultural Theories Of Crime

Socio-Cultural Theories Of Crime The sociological or socio-cultural model provides a macro-level analysis of criminal violence. This model examines criminal violence in terms of socially structured inequality, and social and cultural attitudes and norms regarding anti-social behaviour and inter-personal relations. Besides the two well-known theories, viz. the Structural-Functional Theory and the Theory of Sub-culture of Violence, the Learning Theory, the Exchange Theory, the Anomie Theory, and the Resource Theory also come under socio-cultural analysis.  [1]   Structural Theory This theory asserts that social groups differ in respect to their typical levels of stress, deprivation and frustration and in the sources at their disposal to deal with these stresses. It explains that those individuals would be more violent who combine high stress with low resources. This theory thus explains an individuals action in terms of the ways it is shaped or determined by social forces of one kind or another. Among the possible sources of stress are economic conditions, bad housing, relative poverty, lack of job opportunities and unfavourable and frustrating work condition. Men and women are socialized into particular roles to which are attached a set of socially determined expectations. If structural faction prevents these expectations from being realized, frustration results and violence may ensue. Furthermore, in a variety of ways violence is socially legitimated. Criticism One consequence of accepting this position is that the action of individuals has nothing to do with their personalities and values, and that violence cannot be described in terms of conflict, suppression, sublimation, guilt, and so on. The role of rationality also has to be rejected in social action. The structuralistic perspective, thus, leaves some questions unanswered because of which it is criticized. It should also be observed, however, that while stress resulting from poverty, inequality and various forms of deprivation may be contributory factors in domestic violence, only a small proportion of those who experience such conditions behave violently and many of those who do behave violently are neither poor nor deprived. The identification of structural factors gives a more political flavour to explanations of domestic violence. For example, a study by Straus revealed: that there was a lower incidence of domestic violence when the inequalities between men and women were less marked, and that weaker social bonds gave rise to increased domestic violence.  [2]   System Tension and Feedback System Theory This theory was developed by Straus (A General Systems Theory of violence between Family Members, 1973) to explain intra-family violence. Straus accounts for violence in the home by viewing family as a purposive goal-seeking, adaptive social system. Violence is seen as a system product or output rather than an individual pathology. Straus specified positive feedback in the system which can create an upward spiral of violence, and negative feedback which can maintain, dampen, or reduce the level of violence. According to this theory, violence is precipitated by factors such as stress and inter-individual conflict and is followed by consequences which maintain or escalate violence in family and in society. Criticism This theory has been criticized on the basis that there has been little research specifically concerned with the learning of marital violence. It also over-emphasizes the social system and completely ignores the role of individuals personality.  [3]   Resource theory Resource theory was suggested by William Goode (1971). Women who are most dependent on the spouse for economic well being (e.g. homemakers/housewives, women with handicaps, the unemployed), and are the primary caregiver to their children, fear the increased financial burden if they leave their marriage. Dependency means that they have fewer options and few resources to help them cope with or change their spouses behavior. Couples that share power equally experience lower incidence of conflict, and when conflict does arise, are less likely to resort to violence. If one spouse desires control and power in the relationship, the spouse may resort to abuse.  [4]   Criticism This theory does not explain all forms of violence against women. Various arguments can be given against this theory when applied to wife battering, dowry deaths, murders, rapes, and so on. Patriarchy Theory This theory developed by R.E. Dobash and R. Dobash (Violence Against Wives, 1979) maintains that throughout history, violence has been systematically directed towards women. Economic and social processes operate directly and indirectly to support a patriarchal social order and family structure. Dobashs central theoretical argument is that patriarchy leads to the subordination of women and contributes to a historical pattern of systematic violence directed against females. Criticism Dobashs theory, while perhaps the most macro-level approach to violence against women, has a major drawback of being a theory that is essentially a single factor (patriarchy) explanation of violence (towards women). Conflict and Control Theories Scholars like Foucault (1975), Thompson (1977), and Rothman (1980) have presented a domination model of deviance. They have talked of rules imposed on the powerless by the powerful. Radical and conflict sociologists like Quinney (1977) have argued that the purpose of controlling deviance is to protect the interests of the dominant classes and to prevent access to their resources by outsiders. In other words, the control apparatus is created to prevent the powerless from pursuing their interests, particularly if that pursuit involves gaining access to resources monopolized by the powerful. Imposing varied restrictions on women and compelling them to remain dependent on men economically, socially and emotionally to make them realize that they are weak and powerless in all respects, stands as an example of this argument. To the extent that the agents of control belong to the dominant group, an overall system of devaluation of the powerless group (women) can easily be implemented. Schurz (1983) contends that male control of deviance labelling results in their continued dominance in most spheres of life. The constraints on womens rights can be interpreted as function of the successful definition of women as different from and inferior to men. Man talks of woman not in herself but as relative to him. She is not regarded as an autonomous being. She is differentiated with reference to man and not him with reference to her. She is the incidental, the inessential as opposed to the essential. He is the Subject, he is the Absolute; she is the other. Sex role norms clearly differentiate men from women. When these norms become internalized, they are accepted as facts and seldom questioned. Millet (1970) has said: Because of our social circumstances, male and female are really two cultures and their life experiences are utterly different. Women live in such a different economic, cultural and social world from men that their reactions cannot be understood from a master model developed in male society. Criticism What is in question is not the existence of gender differences but the extent to which such differences justify restrictive role assignments to each gender. There is little disagreement regarding the cultural construction of gender, but there are conflicting views on the role biological factors play in such development. Thus women are: declared as different, defined as inferior, and women stereotypes are justified, and they are systematically deprived of rights, and all attempts at change are restricted. Inter-actionist Deviance Theory This theory, exemplified by theorists such as Erikson (1964), Becker (1963) Schurz (1971), and Lemert (1978) has three characteristics: it cites sex roles as causal factors of why engage in crime and deviant behaviour, it maintains that societal expectations about appropriate sex role behaviour influence the diagnosis and labelling of certain actions as deviant or criminal, and it holds that gender affects the response to such (deviant) behaviours by society (Wisdom, 1984), Since women tend to be less powerful and of lower social status than men, they are easily labelled as deviant in cases of domestic violence. This theory explains family violence in terms of sex role or gender norms, i.e., differential expectations for values, attitudes and behaviours as a function of ones gender. These norms serve as important standards against which women and men are evaluated through application of various sanctions (Schur, 1984). According to the prevalent sex role norms, a husband expects a good wife to behave in a certain manner. She has to run the household smoothly, ensure childrens well-mannered behaviour, avoid assertiveness and remain submissive to elders in family. Any show of independence on her part would violate sex role expectations for female behaviour. According to deviance theory, norm violations tend to trigger forces aimed at making the violator conform to expected standards of behaviour. Thus, when women do not behave like the males ideal of wife, husbands use violence against them to make them conform to norms.  [5]   Social Learning Theory Social learning theory while still concentrating on individual perpetrators, introduces a social element by attempting to explain mens violence towards women as learned behaviour. This phenomenon is seriously referred to as intergenerational transmission of violence. What it purports to demonstrate is that those who witness violence between their parent, or who themselves experience abuse as children are likely to resort to violence in adulthood.  [6]   This theory asserts that human aggression and violence are learned conduct, especially through direct experience and by observing the behaviour of others. According to this theory (Albert Bandura, Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis, 1973) the individual learns violence through imitation. Individuals pick up the behaviour patterns of those they are taught to respect and learn from. Whether observed in the flesh or via visual media, the behaviour of aggressive models is readily imitated by individuals. Aggressive behaviour patterns learned through modelling and imitation remain part of our repertoire of social responses over time. Rewards and punishments also play a crucial role in the learning and expression of behaviour patterns. One might think that physical aggression directed against ones fellows could hardly have any rewards, actual or anticipated. But it is not so. Violence offers abundant rewards and one learns it very early in life. This theory explains both the variations of persons and situations in their tendency to respond aggressively by reference to prior experience, reinforcement patterns, and cognitive processes. Steele and Pollock (1974) and Bennie and Sclare (1969) have maintained that abusive male adults are likely to have been raised in abusive homes. In fact, this family determinism approach maintains that all victims of childhood violence will grow up to be violent adults.  [7]   Criticism Such and Flit craft reject the notion that violence is transmitted from one generation to the next; they argue that the studies which claim to show this are methodologically flawed and base their conclusions on inadequate evidence and unsound interpretation. Widom points to methodological weaknesses in the research, including in retrospective nature and the lack of an adequate control group. Dr. Ram Ahuja applied this theory in studying a wife-batterers history of abuse as a child and found that about half of the batterers (55%) had faced conditions of manifest physical brutality or severe emotional rejection in their childhood. The data thus supported the social learning theory. Yet, violence which is the result of victims provocation or victims complicity, etc., cannot be explained on the basis of this simple theory. Cognitive Behaviour Theory The cognitive behaviour theory postulates that men batter because: They are imitating examples of abuse they have witnessed during childhood or in the media, abuse is rewarded, it enables the batterer to get what he wants, and abuse is reinforced through victim compliance and submission. This theory is same as social learning theory. Advantage and Criticism of the Cognitive Behaviour models One advantage of the cognitive behavioural model is that its analysis of battering and its intervention strategy are compatible with a criminal justice response to domestic violence. The approach holds the batterer fully responsible for his violence and fully responsible for learning and adopting nonviolent alternatives. Without trying to solve larger issues of social inequality on the one hand, or delving into deep-seated psychological issues on the other, the cognitive behavioural approach simply focuses on the violent acts themselves and attempts to change them. The feminist perspective criticises the cognitive behavioural approach for failing to explain why many men with thought patterns or skills deficits that allegedly explain their domestic violence are not violent in other relationships, how culture or sub-cultures influence patterns of violence, and why some men continue to abuse women even when the behaviour is not rewarded.  [8]   Exchange Theory Rechard J. Gelles feels that the Exchange Theory is the best theory of violence because it integrates the elements of the diverse theories of human violence. According to the Exchange Theory, interaction is guided by the pursuit of rewards and the avoidance of punishment and costs. In addition, an individual who supplies reward services to another obliges him to fulfil an obligation and thus the second individual must furnish benefits to the first. The exchange does not pertain to concrete or tangible things; rather, it involves intangibles such as esteem, liking, assistance and approval. If reciprocal exchange of rewards occurs, the interaction will continue, but if reciprocity is not received, the interaction will be broken off. Thus, actors expect rewards to be proportional to the investments (distributive justice). The costs and rewards are judged in the light of alternatives.  [9]   This theory explains the growth of resentment, anger, hostility and violence when the principle of distributive justice is violated. In applying the principles of the Exchange Theory to explain violence in a family (in our case wife beating, dowry death and rape by a family member), we expect that people will use violence in a family if the costs of being violent do not out-weigh the rewards. Goode suggests that force is used more by those in the poorer classes partly because they have less alternative resources and partly because their socialization experiences teach them to depend more on force. However, all researchers do not agree that the poor classes do use more force, though statistics show more violence in poor classes are there because of the fact that greater proportion of the population belongs to lower classes or it may be that middle classes have more resources or have greater motivation to hide their offences. Criticism Intra-family relations are more complex than those studied by Exchange Theorists. A wife cannot break-off interaction with her husband and parents cannot break-off interaction with their children, even if there is no reciprocity. Goode (1971) however, believes that violence is used as a last resort to solve problems in the family. But Nye (1979) does not accept Goodes viewpoint. In applying this theory to intra-family violence, we find some costs for being violent. First, there could be the chance of the victim hitting back; second, a violent assault could lead to an arrest and/or imprisonment; and finally, using violence could lead to loss of status. Thus, since the cost greater than the reward, how does the reward, how does the Exchange Theory explain violence against women?

Airtel Pest Analysis and Porters Five Forces

Airtel Pest Analysis and Porters Five Forces AIRTEL PEST Analysis Political The ministry of telecom industry hiked FDI limits from 49% to 74% which enabled Indian promoters of telecom sector to spark off the competition and consolidation by selling their stakes to foreign entities. Airtel already have tie up with foreign partner SINTEL which is going to help in investing more in infrastructure and latest technology to provide the best services to their subscribers. Also due to this increase in foreign direct investment in telecommunication market, Airtel will be able to modulate the foreign stakes in their companies that have already acquired a range between 67-69 percent of their assets. With the increase in globalisation and tremendous growth of Indian telecommunication sector, Airtel launched its mobile services in Srilanka in Jan 2009 and investing to expand its network with latest technology in next five years. Recently Airtel have also acquired Zain for Africa operations which is the second biggest overseas purchase by an Indian company. Economical In telecom budget 2008, raw material for the manufacture of specified electronic hardware items have been exempted from excise duty which lowers the network equipment costs to benefit major mobile services provider, so Airtel can expand their network coverage to more rural areas at much cheaper cost. During the recession period Government policy to reduce the custom duty on convergence product from 10% to 5% helped in establishing parity devices used in communication sector, so this will help Airtel in lowering their cost for DTH expansion. Government has announced per second billing tariff for the subscriber along with the per minute billing plan. Though the per second plan is not beneficial for the telecom operators as this could reduce the sectors annual revenue by 10-15%.Operators are already struggling with the low Average Revenue Per user (ARPUs) due to high taxes (30 % of the gross revenue earned by the operators goes as various taxes) levied by government will now struggle more with this new plan. To overcome this situation Airtel has launched low tariff per minute plans along with per second plan. As majority of the subscribers make longer duration calls and the per second call could be detrimental for them with the new reduced per minute plan. Airtel could also launch pay per character for SMS services to increase the VAS revenue. Social Government has hiked FDI limits which would lead to better infrastructure in telecom due to intake of more investment by the foreign investors. As 70% of Indian population still resides in rural areas, improvement in telecommunication infrastructure and services will reduce isolation, increase business viability, farming productivity and access to educational and medical services. Airtel has already announced to set up 100000 service centres and telecom infrastructure in rural India by march 2010. Rollout of national rural employment scheme to all 596 districts in India with a provision of Rs.160 billion, to aid faster penetration of mobiles and consequently faster growth of Airtel as they hold major Indian telecom market with 24% growth at the end of 31st March 2009. Government has announced the auction for 3G and BWA spectrum and Airtel is one of the qualified bidders for the same and Airtel has already signed a deal with Ericsson to upgrade their network for 3G. It will help Airtel to undertake social initiatives of the government such as e-education, tele medicine, and e-health and e- governance, providing affordable broadband and mobile services to sub urban and rural areas.   As demand for the value added services and high speed broadband is increasing among the youth. Airtel being the leading private broad band service provider in the country has introduced the ultra fast speed of 50 Mbps for the broadband users on next generation VDSL2 technology which will allow users, the convenience to download a full feature film in less than 3 minutes. Along with it is providing free value add services like parallel ringing, website builder (Basic), PC secure (Anti-Virus software), online storage, unlimited gaming on games on demand. Increasing competition with the entry of many new operators in the telecom industry has forced in reduction of tariffs. So consumers get more options and can change their network operator according to their need. In this Airtel has introduced many low tariff plans like youth Plan for young people, ladies special, and friends prepaid plan, family celebration plan according to the requirements of the different customer segments. Segmentation strategy aims towards understanding the need gaps of specific consumer segments and creating special segmented products for them. Technological Increase in FDI limits also benefited inflow of latest technology with improved infrastructure, as AIRTEL is well established with better infrastructure so it can provide better services to its customers in urban and can expand its network in more rural areas. Introduction of Mobile Number Portability (MNP) which allows the consumer to retain their existing mobile number, even when they change the service provider. This will increase the competition among the service providers as the subscribers can change their network if they are not happy with the services of the existing service provider. Airtel has the edge over his competitors as their services are much better than other service providers.   Government has announced the auction for 3G and BWA spectrum which will allow telecom companies to offer additional valued services like high resolution video and multimedia services with high data rate transmission capabilities. Airtel has already qualified to bid for the auction. Also Airtel has signed a 1.3 billion deal with Ericsson to expand and upgrade its network for 3G services in 15 of Indias 22 telecom circles. Porters 5 Forces Analysis Threat from competition High Fixed Cost: The industry also suffers from high fixed cost which makes the entry barrier also very high for the industry. It comes as no surprise that in the capital-intensive telecom industry the biggest barrier to entry is access to finance. To cover high fixed costs, serious contenders typically require a lot of cash. When capital markets are generous, the threat of competitive entrants escalates. When financing opportunities are less readily available, the pace of entry slows. Meanwhile, ownership of a telecom license can represent a huge barrier to entry. There is already 6-7 players in each region excluding 3 -4 big players like Bharti Airtel, reliance, Vodafone and BSNL. Very less time to gain advantage by an innovation: Every company in this industrial sector in investing a huge amount in research and development and marketing strategy. That is why we see when any offer launched by any company is always counter attacked by other companies very soon. This makes the industry rivalry most prominent. E.g. Caller tunes, Life time cards. Price wars:  The price war is really very fierce in this industry. Price war in telecom industry has commoditized the market that branding has taken a backseat. New players are reducing their tariffs to get better hold in the market and in turn the existing big players like Airtel, reliance etc. also have to compete by introducing low tariff new plans such as youth plan for younger generation, ladies special etc. Threat of New Entrant Both potential and existing competitors influence average industry profitability. The threat of new entrants is usually based on the market entry barriers. They can take diverse forms and are used to prevent an influx of firms into an industry whenever profits, adjusted for the cost of capital, rise above zero. In contrast, entry barriers exist whenever it is difficult or not economically feasible for an outsider to replicate the incumbents position. The most common forms of entry barriers, except intrinsic physical or legal obstacles, are as follows: Economies of scale: In telecom industry the economies of scale exists from the supplier side. That is why companies try to increase their subscriber base at drastic rate. Distribution channels: Distribution channels are also providing a major determining factor. These channels are not loyal to any company and competitors can easily access them and make out work for them. Though huge licence fee to be paid upfront and high gestation period reduces the threat of new entrant and discourages investment and infrastructure in the telecom sector. Limited Spectrum availability, Regulatory issue which again leads to high licence fee also restrict new players from entering into the market. Rapidly changing technology and setup the efficient Infrastructure for the same accordingly is also the major factor which stops new player to enter into the telecom sector. New entrants are ready to enter huge capital considering the attractiveness of the market. Increase in FDI limits to 74% is bringing competition from foreign players. Huge investments are being made by the foreign companies to setup better infrastructure and getting latest technology into the country. Threat from the non telecom background brand which could foray into the telecom industry by the ease of outsoucing. Customer switching cost is very low, as cost of new connection is really low. And new connection offers more benefits to the customers Threat of substitute The threat that substitute products pose to an industrys profitability depends on the relative price-to-performance ratios of the different types of products or services to which customers can turn to satisfy the same basic need. The threat of substitution is also affected by switching costs that is, the costs in areas such as retraining, retooling and redesigning that are incurred when a customer switches to a different type of product or service. It also involves: The potential major substitutes for telecom industry are as follows: Products and services from non-traditional telecom industries pose serioussubstitution threats. Cable TV and satellite operators now compete for buyers. The cable guys, with their own direct lines into homes, offer broadband internet services, and satellite links can substitute for high-speed business networking needs. Wireless phones are also getting cheaper each year over the last decade; this has provided consumers with more convenience and mobility, to the extent that the younger demographic now considers a fixed line phone redundant. Just as worrying for telecom operators is the internet: VOIP i.e voice over ip telephony is becoming a viable vehicle for cut-rate voice calls. Delivered by ISPs not telecom operators internet telephony could take a big bite out of telecom companies core voice revenues. Applications like Skype have been extremely popular among younger generation users and are fast emerging as preferred means of communication. BUYERS POWER Buyer power is one of forces that influence the appropriation of the value created by an industry. The most important determinants of buyer power are the size and the concentration of customers. Other factors are the extent to which the buyers are informed and the concentration or differentiation of the competitors. Kippenberger (1998) states that it is often useful to distinguish potential buyer power from the buyers willingness or incentive to use that power, willingness that derives mainly from the â€Å"risk of failure† associated with a products use The following points influence the buyer power: Lack of differentiation among the service provider: As telephone and data services does not vary much regardless of which companies are selling them. Cut throat competition: Competition level has increased a lot with increase in new foreign as well as domestic players in the industry. Operators are engaging in an intense price war which is benefitting to the buyers in every way. Customer is price sensitive: Every operator is offering low tariffs with better services due to high level of competition among the operators which has made customer more sensitive to price. Low switching costs from one operator to other operator. The consumer now has access to several means of communication like email, instant messaging which are diminishing the importance voice services Attractive Schemes for new connections. Availability of all operators everywhere. SUPPLIER POWER Supplier power is a mirror image of the buyer power. As a result, the analysis of supplier power typically focuses first on the relative size and concentration of suppliers relative to industry participants and second on the degree of differentiation in the inputs supplied. The ability to charge customers different prices in line with differences in the value created for each of those buyers usually indicates that the market is characterized by high supplier power and at the same time by low buyer power. In the drawback of Indian telecom industry the following should be kept in mind: Large number of suppliers: The industry basically has a large number of suppliers, which helps them to choose from a lot of options. So they try to select the best option to deliver the value to the customers and to have a competitive advantage from their competitor. Shared tower infrastructure: Technology has helped them to share the tower infrastructure. This basically helps them to reduce the initial investment a lot. Limited pool of skilled managers and engineers especially those well versed in the latest technologies which put companies into weaker side in terms of hiring and salaries. Medium cost of switching since changing their hardware would lead to additional cost in modifying the architecture.

What is a Valentine :: essays research papers

Heart-shaped, lace doilies stuck to red construction paper with glue dripping from edges. Tootsie pops poked down the middle of a Care Bears valentine. On the desk just a few seats over, handfuls of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles valentines telling you to â€Å"Cowabunga into a radical Valentine’s Day!† Pencils with heart-shaped erasers placed delicately on the corner of each student’s desk by a favorite second-grade teacher. Valentine’s Day of years past seemed so simple, but with the years, our memories change just as we do. Valentine’s Day was not just another holiday in grade school. All holidays meant a party, but on Valentine’s Day the room moms always brought extra candy and streamers galore. As kids, we knew this day was our chance to waste an entire day of learning just to spend hours dropping unmarked valentines in each classmate’s brown paper bag mailbox. Okay, so we actually did some work, like our vocab in the morning while the moms set up. Still, it was just like a snow day! Come high school, even eighth grade, the parties became extinct. The importance of our education was stressed now more than ever. Grades started â€Å"counting† towards college, driver’s ed became essential, and you no longer told Tommy Too Cute that you liked him through a valentine; instead, you asked him to the Sadie Hawkins dance. Things had changed. Suddenly it was just a Hallmark holiday to you and your single friends. Enter college. At this point, if you were dating someone in high school who was your valentine, a number of scenarios were possible, including, but not limited to: 1. The guy/girl turned out to be a complete jerk and is now dating your ex-best-friend who still has your favorite shirt in his/her closet. 2. He/she chose a scholarship out of state over you (as if!). 3. You were just too strong to be held back by the chains of commitment and opted to wring out his/her heart like a soaked kitchen towel. Choose your scenario then consider why you are single on this Valentine’s Day in college. Realize that being single is not something to be upset over. Look around at all of your friends, your family, even your roommate. This year celebrate with one of them. Spend that $3.49 on an overpriced pop-up Hallmark card. Stuff your face with a giant heart-shaped box of Walgreen’s chocolate. Rent Sleepless in Seattle and cry.

Essay --

CHAPTER NO 5 Adjustments & maintenance 5.1 Capillary Tube 5.2 Priming 5.3 Pressure Gauge Fitting 5.4 Relief Valve 5.5 Pressure Adjustment 5.6 PD Pump System Flow Diagram 5.7 External Relief Valve Adjustment 5.8 Internal Relief Valve Adjustment 5.9 Motor Lubrication 5.1 Capillary Tube:- A capillary tube is a narrow, long tube of constant diameter. In refrigeration application of capillary tube, the surface tension is not important. Tube length limit from 1.0 m to 6 m and the diameters of refrigerant capillary tubes limit from 0.5 mm to 3 mm. Due to the following two factors the pressure reduction in a capillary tube occurs: The frictional resistance offered by tube walls refrigerant has to overcome. Than that of the liquid the density of vapor is less. As it flows in the tube the average density of refrigerant decreases. The increase in acceleration or velocity of the refrigerant requires pressure drop. 5.2 Priming:- Liquid pumps can lose prime and to get the pump started this will require the pump to be primed by adding liquid to the pump and inlet pipes. Loss of "prime" ...

Synthesis of Cinnamaldehyde from Benzaldehyde

Vidallon, Mark Louis P. Date Performed: February 20, 2012 CHEM44. 1 2LDate Submitted: March 12, 2012 MIXED-ALDOL CONDENSATION Synthesis of Cinnamaldehyde I. Introduction Cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde or 3-phenyl-2-propenal is the major constituent of cinnamon oil, extracted from several species of Cinnamomum (C. verum, C. burmanii, C. cassia), under the family Lauraceae, a group of evergreen trees. Cinnamon bark (particularly C. verum) yields 0. 4-0. % oil, which contains 60-80% cinnamaldehyde, 4-5% sesquiterpenoids (? -humulene, ? -caryophyllene, limonene and others), eugenol, cinnamyl acetate, eugenol acetate, cinnamyl alcohol, methyl eugenol, benzaldehyde, benzyl benzoate, cuminaldehyde, monoterpenes (linalool, pinene, phellandrene and cymene), safrole and others (List and Horhammer; Masada; Ravindran qtd. from Khan and Abourashed, 2011). Isolation of cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon oil of Cinnamomum sp. ark, called â€Å"quills†, â€Å"quillings†, â€Å"feathering s† and â€Å"chips† depending on quality, was first done in 1834 by Dumas and Peligot (Attokaran, 2011). It has been proven that cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon oil has a very high potential in the pharmaceutical industry, aside from its well known role in the food preparation, specifically as spice, odorant and colorant. Several researches have proven the antimicrobial activity of cinnamaldehyde against Salmonella typhimurium and Bacillus subtilis (Council of Europe, 2008).Also, cinnamaldehyde has been proven to inhibit microbial growth of opportunistic human pathogenic fungi, such as Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans and Rhizopus oligosporus, and various bacteria (Escherichia coli, Enterobacter cloacae, Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, and others) (Khan and Abourashed, 2011). Several studies have also unraveled the hypoglycemic (insulin-like) and hypolipidemic properties of cinnamaldehyde since it can cause: elevated glucose oxidation and uptake, causing decrease in blood plasma glucose levels; decreased glycosylated hemoglobin, serum total cholesterol and riglyceride levels; increased plasma insulin, hepatic glycogen and high-density lipoprotein; and restored modified plasma enzyme concentrations to almost normal level (Babu, Prabuseenivasan and Ignacimuthu, 2006). Though effective approaches in the isolation of cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon oil from quills, low amounts of pure cinnamaldehyde can only be obtained from effective separation processes. Feature Article Relative Rates:  Free-Radical BrominationDue to this demarcation in the discovery and investigation of other potential medicinal and non-medicinal values of cinnamaldehyde, chemists have also developed synthetic procedures to obtain high amounts of pure cinnamaldehyde, one of which is the mixed aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde. Mixed aldol condensation is a reaction of different aldehydes or ketones leading to the formation of aldols (? -hydroxyaldehydes) or ketols (? -hydroxyketones), accompanied by the removal of water to result finally to enals (? , ? -unsaturated aldehydes) or enones (? , ? -unsaturated ketones).Aldol additions are due to the reaction of enolate ions of carbonyl compounds (from the reaction of acidic ? -hydrogens of aldehydes and ketones with bases) with the electrophilic centers of other carbonyl compounds. Synthesized aldols and ketols can dehydrate spontaneously or can be dehydrated, especially when heated, to form enals an d enone, the final product(s) of aldol condensations (Moore and Langley, 2010). Possible side reactions were the Canizzarro reaction of benzaldehyde and the self-condensation of acetaldehyde. Minimization of the possibilities of the stated reactions was done by following a special scheme of procedure.Characterization tests that were done in to confirm the identity of the products are boiling point determination, reactions with nitric acid and with sodium bisulfite and derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine. In the experiment conducted, the objectives of the author were as follows: 1. To synthesize cinnamaldehyde from the base-catalyzed mixed aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde; and 2. To characterize the synthesized product using its boiling point, results of simple chemical tests and derivatization reactions, along with the determination of the elting points of the hydrazones and comparison of the hydrazones using their RGB values. II. Materials and Methods A. Reagents The following are the reagents were used in the experiment: Benzaldehyde Acetaldehyde 15% sodium hydroxide solution Sodium chloride 95 % ethanol solution 40% sodium bisulfite solution 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine Nitric acid Ice B. Apparatus and Equipment The following are the apparatus and equipment were used in the experiment: 50-mL round-bottom flask 50-mL beaker 10-mL graduated cylinder 10-mL pipet Pasteur pipet Micro distilling flask Test tubes Evaporating dish Thermometer Bunsen burnerMicroreflux Watch glass Iron ring Iron clamp Iron stand Separatory funnel Wire gauze Hot plate Electronic top loading balance Fisher-Johns melting point apparatus III. Schematic Diagrams C. Synthesis of Cinnamaldehyde (in round-bottom flask) 3. 06mL – cool in ice bath + 3. 00mL 15% NaOH + 0. 50mL dropwise with swirling + 3. 00mL 15% NaOH + 0. 50mL dropwise with swirling + 3. 00mL 15% NaOH + 0. 68mL dropwise with swirling – reflux for 10-15 minutes – cool to room te mperature – cool in ice bath – separate layers Organic layer , very minimal (in 10-mL graduated cylinder) Aqueous layer very minimal, unreactedH2O with Na+ and Cl- Measure amount and save for characterization discard D. Characterization 1. Boiling Point Determination Product (in distilling flask) – distill Note temperature at which liquid starts to boil 2. Reaction with Nitric Acid (Test for presence of benzene ring) 1-2 drops of test compound1 (in test tube) + 1-2 drops HNO3 Observe visible changes and temperature changes 3. Reaction with Sodium Bisulfite (Test for presence of carbonyl compounds) 4. 0mL 40% NaHSO3 + 1. 0mL ethanol – filter Residue Filtrate Save and label â€Å"alcoholic NaHSO3† 1-2 drops of test compound1 (in test tube) + 1-2 drops alcoholic NaHSO3Observe visible changes 4. Derivatization with 2, 4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine 1-2 drops of test compound1 (in test tube) + 4. 0mL ethanol + 3. 0mL – filter – recrystallize usi ng 95% ethanol Colored hydrazone crystals Determine melting point and RGB values Compared appearance, melting points and RGB values with other hydrazones 5. Combustion Test 2-4 drops of test compound1 (in evaporating dish) – flame carefully using Bunsen burner flame Observe flammability, flame color and sootiness and compared with other test substances 1 Compounds to be tested are: cinnamaldehyde (product), benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde.IV. Data and Results Table 1. Observations on the synthesis of cinnamaldehyde. Reagent/Action Taken| Observations| Benzaldehyde| Clear, colorless, dense liquid| Acetaldehyde| Clear, colorless liquid| Sodium hydroxide| Colorless liquid| Benzaldehyde + NaOH| White mixture| Mixture + dropwise addition of acetaldehyde| Yellow oil (upper layer) and off-white lower layer| Reflux| Dark brown, opaque, viscous liquid mixture| Cooling| Formation of layers| Extraction:| | Organic layer| (Upper) Dark brown, opaque viscous liquid with cinnamon scent| Aqueo us layer| (Lower) Light brown, translucent liquid|Product| Dark brown, opaque viscous liquid with cinnamon scent| Table 2. Percent yield of the synthesis of cinnamaldehyde. Compound| Amount (mL)| Benzaldehyde| 3. 06| Acetaldehyde| 1. 68| Cinnamaldehyde:| | Theoretical| 3. 78| Experimental| 3. 46| % Yield| 91. 6 %| Table 3. Boiling points of compounds used and synthesized in the experiment. Compound| Boiling point (oC)| Benzaldehyde| 179| Acetaldehyde| 65-82| Cinnamaldehyde:| | Theoretical| 250-252| Experimental| Decomposed| Table 4. Results of the characterization tests of the product and reactants. Compound| Reaction with HNO3| Reaction with NaHSO3| Observations| (+/-)| Observations| (+/-)| Benzaldehyde| Yellow-orange liquid;Heat production | + | White precipitate | + | Acetaldehyde| Clear, colorless liquid (N. R. ) | – | White precipitate | + | Cinnamaldehyde| Two layers: opaque, dark brown (upper) and translucent, chocolate brown (lower) | + | Brown precipitate | + | Table 5. Results of the derivatization with 2,4-DNP. Compound| Observations| Melting point of hydrazone (oC)| Mean RGB Values (in hexadecimal)| | | Theoretical| Experimental| | Benzaldehyde| Orange yellow solids| 255. 25| 218| E7B01A| Acetaldehyde| Crimson red solids| 221. 6| 174| C75B34| Cinnamaldehyde| Red orange solids| 267. 76| Decomposed| AF6D21| Table 6. Observations on the combustion test of the reagents and the product. Compound| Flammability| Flame color| Sootiness| Benzaldehyde| Flammable| Orange| Sooty| Acetaldehyde| Moderately flammable| Blue| Very sooty| Cinnamaldehyde| Very flammable| Orange| Extremely sooty with black residue| Sample Calculations: V benzaldehyde = mol benzaldehyde ? MW benzaldehyde ? 1/? benzaldehyde V benzaldehyde = (0. 03 mol)(106. 12 g/mol)(1. 00 mL/1. 0415 g) V benzaldehyde = 3. 06 mL V acetaldehyde = mol acetaldehyde ?MW acetaldehyde ? 1/? acetaldehyde V acetaldehyde = (0. 03 mol)(44. 05 g/mol)(1. 00 mL/0. 788 g) V acetaldehyde = 1. 68 mL Theoretical yield = mol cinnamaldehyde ? MW cinnamaldehyde ? 1/? cinnamaldehyde Theoretical yield = (0. 03 mol)(132. 16 g/mol)(1. 00 mL/1. 05 g) Theoretical yield = 3. 776 mL %Yield = (3. 46 mL/3. 776 mL) ? 100% %Yield = 91. 6% Maximum loss by solvation V cinnamaldehyde = ? cinnamaldehyde ? solubility in H2O ? V water V cinnamaldehyde = (1. 00 mL/1. 05 g)(4. 09? 10-4 g/mL)[9. 00 mL+(0. 030 mol)(18. 016 g/mol)](1. 00 mL/g) V cinnamaldehyde = (1. 00 mL/1. 05 g) (4. 09? 0-4 g/mL)(9. 54 mL) V cinnamaldehyde = 3. 72? 10-3 mL %Loss by solvation = (V cinnamaldehyde lost/ Theoretical yield) ? 100% %Loss by solvation = (3. 72? 10-3 mL/3. 776 mL) ? 100% %Loss by solvation = 0. 098% V. Discussion Cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde or 3-phenyl-2-propenal is the dominant component of cinnamon oil, extracted from several species of Cinnamomum (C. verum, C. burmanii, C. cassia), under the family Lauraceae, a group of evergreen trees. Cinnamon bark (particularly C. verum) yields 0. 4-0. 8% oil, which contains 6 0-80% cinnamaldehyde (List and Horhammer; Masada; Ravindran qtd. rom Khan and Abourashed, 2011), which was first isolated in 1834 by Dumas and Peligot (Attokaran, 2011). It has been proven that cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon oil has a very high potency in the field of medicine, aside from its well known role in the cooking and baking, specifically as spice, odorant and colorant. Several researches have explained and proven the anti-diabetic properties of cinnamaldehyde (Babu, Prabuseenivasan and Ignacimuthu, 2006); also, studies have shown the antimicrobial activity of cinnamaldehyde against Salmonella typhimurium and Bacillus subtilis (Council of Europe, 2008).Cinnamaldehyde has been proven to inhibit microbial growth of opportunistic human pathogenic fungi and various bacteria (Khan and Abourashed, 2011). Though effective approaches in the isolation of cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon oil from quills, low amounts of pure cinnamaldehyde can only be obtained from effective separation proc esses. Due to this demarcation in the discovery and investigation of other potential medicinal and non-medicinal values of cinnamaldehyde, chemists have also developed synthetic procedures to obtain high amounts of pure cinnamaldehyde, one of which is the mixed aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde.The synthesis of cinnamaldehyde through mixed-aldol condensation was done by mixing, in a cooled microreflux, benzaldehyde, portions of 15% sodium hydroxide solution and acetaldehyde, added in a dropwise manner, and then refluxing the mixture for 15-20 minutes. Isolation of the synthesized cinnamaldehyde was done simply by separating the water insoluble cinnamaldehyde layer from the aqueous layer. Aldol condensation is the reaction of aldehydes and/or ketones leading to the formation of ? -hydroxyaldehydes (aldols) or ? hydroxyketones (ketols), also known as the aldol addition, accompanied by the removal of water molecule (dehydration) from these compounds result finally to enals (? , ? -unsaturated aldehydes) or enones (? , ? -unsaturated ketones) (Moore and Langley, 2010; McMurry and Simanek, 2008; Fox and Whitesell, 2004). Aldol additions are due to the reaction of enolate ions of carbonyl compounds (from the reaction of acidic ? -hydrogen atoms of aldehydes and ketones with bases) with the electrophilic centers of other carbonyl compounds.Dehydration, which can be spontaneous due to formation of a more conjugated system or promoted by heating, then leads to the generation of the ? , ? -unsaturated carbonyl compounds as the final product of the aldol condensation (McMurry and Simanek, 2008; Fox and Whitesell, 2004). Aldol condensations can be classified as simple and mixed-(or cross-) aldol condensation. The difference between the two classifications is that simple aldol condensation utilizes only one aldehyde or ketone substrate while the mixed-aldol condensation uses two different carbonyl compounds as the substrate for the reaction (Fox and White sell, 2004).The mixed-aldol condensation was type of reaction employed in the experiment; however, simple aldol condensation, also known as self-condensation was one of the expected side reactions in the conducted study. The general equation for the synthesis of cinnamaldehyde was: The mechanism of the synthesis reaction can be proposed as: 6. Formation of ethenolate ion nucleophile 7. Aldol addition: Formation of 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal 8. Dehydration: Formation of cinnamaldehyde The initial step done in the experiment was combining 3. 06 milliliter benzaldehyde with three 3. 0 milliliter portions of 15% sodium hydroxide with dropwise addition of 1. 68 milliliter acetaldehyde while swirling the mixture, which was in the microreflux, dipped in an ice bath. Benzaldehyde, followed by 3. 00-milliliter portion of 15% sodium hydroxide solution, was first put into the microreflux instead of the acetaldehyde to prevent acetaldehyde from undergoing self-condensation with the following ge neral equation: Compared to acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde has no 3 ? -hydrogen atoms, which can react with the nucleophile, hydroxide ions, to form a strong nucleophile, the ethenolate ion.Ethenolate ions can attack acetaldehyde instead of attacking benzaldehyde. Thus, benzaldehyde, which can remain as it is in sodium hydroxide, was put in first until the formation and attack of the nucleophile, which was formed right after acetaldehyde was dropped into the reaction mixture. The following is the mechanism of the self-condensation of acetaldehyde, which was minimized by the procedure carried out: Addition of 3. 00-milliliter portions of 15% sodium hydroxide solution, a dilute base, was done to compensate for the combination of benzaldehyde and sodium hydroxide, before adding acetaldehyde.Benzaldehyde reacts with strong, concentrated bases to form benzenecarboxylate and hydroxymethylbenzene; this is known as the Canizzarro reaction. Canizzarro reaction (mechanism shown below) was minimiz ed by the addition of the strong base in small portions, before adding the acetaldehyde, and using a dilute solution of it. Cooling of the mixture in ice bath was done to favor the reaction aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde, a spontaneous reaction due to the higher degree of conjugation of the product, while disfavoring the self-condensation of acetaldehyde, a heat-requiring reaction (Fox and Whitesell, 2004).Dropwise addition of the enolizable compound, acetaldehyde, was performed to minimize the drastic formation of ethenolate ions while unreacted acetaldehyde molecules still exist in the mixture. The phenomenon was prevented since it would have entailed the self-condensation of acetaldehyde, which could have caused lower yield in the experiment since the reagent would have been consumed in the unnecessary reaction just stated. The microreflux was shaken while the mixture was still being prepared to distribute the ethenolate ions formed though the mixture for the m to react with the electrophile, benzaldehyde.This procedure was also done to minimize the possibility of the self-condensation of acetaldehyde since the ethenolate ions generated were expected to have reacted with benzaldehyde since they were distributed with the aid by shaking before the next drop of acetaldehyde came in contact with mixture. Furthermore, since the reaction mixture was cold, the reaction was expected to be slow; thus, shaking can compensate for the slow movement of molecules and ions in the mixture by somehow supplying the energy needed for the slow-moving benzaldehyde molecules and ethenolate ions to collide.Refluxing was done to: (1) react the still unreacted benzaldehyde molecules and ethenolate ions; and (2) promote the dehydration of the 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal to finally form the 3-phenyl-2-propenal or the cinnamaldehyde. Refluxing intimately mixes substances by increasing the contact between the reactant particles through boiling and evaporation, follow ed by the condensation in the reflux condenser (due to the removal of heat by the cold water flowing in the condenser) and restoration of the synthesized compound and the little (expected) amount of the unreacted reagents on their original vessel (Mayo, Pike and Forbes, 2001).Refluxing the mixture was very advantageous to the conducted experiment since it ensured higher yield and faster dehydration of the 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal, though the stated reaction was expected to be spontaneous due to the higher degree of conjugation of the product (3-phenyl-2-propenal) compared to the 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal. The synthesized cinnamaldehyde was readily separable (solubility of cinnamaldehyde in water=4. 09? 10-4gram/milliliter) with the lower aqueous layer; however, cooling of the mixture was done first to decrease the solubility of the cinnamaldehyde to achieve higher recoverable amount of the product.Liquid-liquid extraction to recover the solvated cinnamaldehyde was not done since the maximum amount of solvated cinnamaldehyde was just 0. 098% of the theoretical yield (see Sample Calculations), thus the recovery of such little amount of product would be wasteful in terms of effort and reagents. Graduated cylinder was used directly as the receiver of the organic layer separated to determine right away the amount of synthesized cinnamaldehyde. The determination of the amount of product in this kind of manner was performed to minimize the loss of products due to the adherence of the very viscous product on the sides of different containers.The amount of the synthesized cinnamaldehyde was found to be 3. 46 milliliter, 91. 6% of the theoretical yield which was computed as 3. 776 milliliter. Possible sources of error in the experiment were: the losses of minimal amount of reagents due to their adherence on the sides of the Pasteur pipets and 50-milliliter beakers; and the losses of the synthesized cinnamaldehyde caused by its adhesion on the sides of the microreflux , surface of the boiling chip and the inside surface of the separatory, caused by the high viscosity of cinnamaldehyde.The lack of further purification process on the cinnamaldehyde, which could still contain traces of benzaldehyde, acetaldehyde and other side products, could also be a factor, leading to the incorrectness of the results of the experiment. The synthesized cinnamaldehyde was expected to be constituted of the cis- and trans- diastereomers; however, it was expected that the trans-isomer was the major component of the product. The reason for the claim was that higher possibility of existence of its trans-isomer-forming transition state conformation compared to the cis-isomer-forming transition state conformation.Elimination to a trans double bond from the staggered conformation of the 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal transition state, wherein the carbonyl group and the phenyl group are in the anti position to minimize the steric effects on the molecule, was still favored, thou gh the carbonyl group is relatively small, compared to the energetically less stable gauche conformation (due to steric interactions of the carbonyl group and the large phenyl group) of the 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal, which can cause the cis-isomer formation (Carey and Sundberg, 2001). (a)(b) Figure 1.Balls and sticks representation of 3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanal in the conformations for the formation of (a) trans-cinnamaldehyde and (b) cis-cinnamaldehyde. Carbon 2 shadows carbon 3 to show the anti-conformation in (a) and the gauche conformation in (b) of the phenyl and the carbaldehyde groups. Further proof that the formation of the trans-cinnamaldehyde was favored in the reaction was the coplanar arrangement of the highly conjugated aldol condensation product. According to Fox and Whitesell (2004), extended conjugation of the benzene ring with the alkene double bond and carbon-oxygen double bond of the carbonyl group in the ? ? -unsaturated aldehyde product leads to the flat, copla nar arrangement of the product. The p orbital overlap of extensive ? system of the carbonyl group and the alkene is greatest as the ? systems arrange in a single plane, which leads to higher stability of the molecule in terms of the conjugation present. Having a flat product would cause the increased torsional strain on the molecule due to the very close distance of the carbonyl group and the benzene ring. Therefore, cis-benzaldehyde, given the stated situation, is highly unstable and is not preferentially formed over trans-benzaldehyde. (a) (b) Figure 2.Balls and sticks representation of (a) trans-cinnamaldehyde and (b) cis-cinnamaldehyde, viewed at different perspectives to show the differences in the flatness of the two molecules that contribute to their stabilities. Possible side reactions in the experiment conducted were the self-condensation of acetaldehyde and Canizzarro reaction as previously stated along with the preventive measures exercised to minimize their occurrence. S elf-condensation of acetaldehyde was expected to be greatly minimized by the procedure employed and the fact that it is energetically unfavorable, according to Fox and Whitesell (2004).Furthermore, even if the reaction took place, it would have been very minimal since it is a reversible reaction, which was competed with a more favorable reaction that is followed by an irreversible somehow spontaneous dehydration reaction. Depletion of the ethenolate ions (due to the consumption in the addition of benzaldehyde and ethenolate ions, then conversion of the intermediate to cinnamaldehyde) causes the competing self-addition of acetaldehyde to proceed backwards, forming back the acetaldehyde and ethenolate ions, which can be consumed in the aldol condensation of cinnamaldehyde and acetaldehyde.Simple distillation was done to determine the boiling point of the synthesized cinnamaldehyde; however, decomposition was observed in the middle of the procedure, causing the failure of the melting p oint determination attempt; but supported that it was possible that cinnamaldehyde. The observed decomposition can be attributed to the instability of cinnamaldehyde, usually denoted by thickening and decomposition, when exposed for a long time to air at elevated temperatures but lower than its boiling point (>70 °C) (Gholivand and Ahmadi, 2008).Decomposition of natural cinnamaldehyde, however, is not observable in baking and cooking due to the presence of eugenol impurities on cinnamon oil, which has antioxidative properties that protect cinnamaldehyde from heat-induced decomposition (â€Å"Cinnamaldehyde Content†). The chemical tests performed were reaction with nitric acid, formation of the sodium bisulfite addition complex and derivatization with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine.Reaction with nitric acid is a test for the differentiation of aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes. Aromatic aldehydes undergo nitration with concentrated nitric acid under normal conditions. Positive t est results can are color changes and/or heat production. The general equation for the nitration of aromatic aldehydes is: Results of the reaction with nitric acid were shown in Table 4. Figure 3. Test results for the reaction of nitric acid with acetaldehyde (left), benzaldehyde (middle) and cinnamaldehyde (right).Positive test results were observed with benzaldehyde and with cinnamaldehyde by the production of colored mixtures, yellow and brown, respectively, accompanied by heat production as shown by the following specific mechanism: 1. Formation of nitrosonium ion 2. Electrophilic addition of the nitrosonium ion to the aromatic aldehyde (a) Cinnamaldehyde Ortho attack Para attack (b) Benzaldehyde (Meta attack) (c) Acetaldehyde Reaction with alcoholic sodium bisulfite solution is a confirmatory test for aldehydes and ketones, having the following reaction and mechanism: Mechanism:Results of the reaction of the compounds with alcoholic sodium bisulfite solution were listed in Tabl e 4. Positive results were observed with acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde and cinnamaldehyde, which were denoted by the formation of transparent accumulation which turned to white precipitate, white precipitate and brown precipitate, respectively. Figure 4. Test results of the reaction of alcoholic sodium bisulfite with cinnamaldehyde (left), benzaldehyde (middle) and acetaldehyde (right). Sodium bisulfite addition complexes were the observed precipitates of the following reactions:Derivatization with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine was done to support the identity of the cinnamaldehyde by the determination of the melting point of the hydrazone formed in the derivatization since the boiling point of the cinnamaldehyde was impractical to measure given that it is relatively high and the product, being impure can undergo decomposition. Derivatization with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine was performed by dissolving the test compound (cinnamaldehyde, acetaldehyde and benzaldehyde) in 4. 00 milliliter of ethanol and adding 3. 0 milliliter 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine solution. The formed precipitate was then filtered and then recrystallized using minimum amount of 95% ethanol solution. The general equation and the mechanism of the reaction can be proposed as: Mechanism: Results of the derivatization, with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine, were shown in Table 5. The following are the equations for the derivatization of each aldehyde with 2,4-DNP in the experiment: Colors of the derivatives obtained were qualitatively different due to the differences in their degrees of conjugation.Decomposition of the cinnamaldehyde hydrazone was observed, which hindered the determination of the melting point of the hydrazone. Deviations from theoretical melting point values of the two other hydrazones were observed on the experimental melting points gathered. The observed discrepancies maybe ascribed to the efficiency of the Fisher-Johns melting point apparatus and/or the quality of the reagents (benza ldehyde, acetaldehyde and 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine) used.To compensate for the failure in the melting point determination of the cinnamaldehyde hydrazone, the RGB (Red, Blue, Green) values or the web color keywords used by computer monitors to generate colors (McFarland, 2009), of the three hydrazones were determined and tested for significant differences using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Figure 5. Isolated and purified hydrazones of benzaldehyde (left), acetaldehyde (middle) and cinnamaldehyde (right). Mean RGB values obtained for cinnamaldehyde, acetaldehyde and benzaldehyde were shown in Table 5.Results of the Analysis of Variance revealed significantly differences among the red values and among the green values of the three hydrazones and no significant differences among the blue values of the hydrazones. Having significantly different values on at least one of the RGB values proves that the composition of the hydrazones was significantly different, thus implying that the p robable presence of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde in the product was negligible and that cinnamaldehyde can be the compound present.Results of the combustion test were shown in Table 6. Combustion is a chemical reaction between a substance and oxygen that proceeds with the evolution with heat and light as flame (Stoker, 2009). It can be complete, where all of the substance totally undergoes combustion with carbon dioxide and water as the product (general) or incomplete, caused by several factors, which brings about carbon monoxide and elemental carbon formation (soot).Observed differences in the sootiness of acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde and cinnamaldehyde were due to the differences in the number of carbon atoms and the differences in the degrees of unsaturation of the molecules of each of the compounds. Incomplete combustion is generally observed in long chain hydrocarbons and other organic compounds given that oxygen is limited (Johnson, 1999; Macomber, 1996) since oxygen is consume d along with the carbon of the organic compound to produce carbon dioxide while hydrogen atoms are utilized, also along with oxygen, to produce water.Furthermore, unsaturated organic compounds (having as much carbon-carbon double bond) favors incomplete combustion since the number of carbon atoms is relatively higher than the number of hydrogen atoms; excess carbon atoms cannot be used up in the combustion process to produce carbon dioxide (when oxygen supply limited) and thus soot forms (Lister and Renshaw, 2000). It has been show in the balanced equations of the combustion each compound that cinnamaldehyde requires the highest amount of oxygen, followed by benzaldehyde and, lastly, by acetaldehyde.Given that, in the combustion test conducted, oxygen supply was almost uniform among the three, soot formation was predicted to be observed more prominently on cinnamaldehyde (product), followed by benzaldehyde and lastly by acetaldehyde due to the amount of carbon atoms and the relative number of unsaturations on each molecules. The same arrangement was also the experimental arrangement of the compounds with respect to the observed degrees of sootiness after the carried out combustion test.The structure of cinnamaldehyde was supported by the positive reaction of cinnamaldehyde with nitric acid and with alcoholic sodium bisulfite. Though it can be inferred that the detected compound can also be benzaldehyde, the cinnamaldehyde color (yellow to brown), viscosity and the cinnamon aroma of the compound (which are qualitatively different from the color, viscosity and odor of benzaldehyde), the characteristic decomposition of cinnamaldehyde below its boiling point and the results of the combustion test can be used as further evidence of the identity of the compound produced.Possible sources of error in the experiment were the quality of the reagents used, intervals of dropping acetaldehyde on the mixture, lack of further purification process, lack of more evident physic al and chemical characterization method for the product, efficiency of the melting point apparatus utilized and the storage of cinnamaldehyde product for too long prior to derivatization. I. Summary and ConclusionThe special synthesis experiment, entitled â€Å"Mixed-Aldol Condensation: Synthesis of Cinnamaldehyde†, was conducted to synthesize cinnamaldehyde from the base-catalyzed mixed aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde; and characterize the synthesized product using its boiling point, results of simple chemical tests and derivatization reactions, along with the determination of the melting points of the hydrazones and comparison of the hydrazones using their RGB values.The synthesis of cinnamaldehyde through mixed-aldol condensation was done by mixing, in a cooled microreflux, benzaldehyde, portions of 15% sodium hydroxide solution and acetaldehyde, added in a dropwise manner, and then refluxing the mixture for 15-20 minutes. Isolation of the synthesized c innamaldehyde was done simply by separating the water insoluble cinnamaldehyde layer from the aqueous layer. Determination of the volume of the synthesized substance was then performed.Chemical test carried out were test for aromatic ring (reaction with nitric acid), test for aldehydes (reaction with alcoholic sodium bisulfite) and derivatization with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine while the physical characterization test done were boiling point determination using simple distillation and melting point determination of the derivatized hydrazones. RGB values of the isolated and recrystallized hydrazones were obtained and tested for significant differences using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). It was shown that positive test results were exhibited by cinnamaldehyde and benzaldehyde in their reactions with nitric acid.It was also shown that positive test results were displayed by cinnamaldehyde, benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde in their reactions with alcoholic sodium bisulfite. The boiling po int of the isolated product and the melting point of the cinnamaldehyde hydrazone were not obtained due to the decomposition of the stated compound. However, RGB values of the hydrazones were obtained. Results of the Analysis of Variance of the RGB values of the hydrazones revealed significantly differences among the red values and among the green values and no significant differences among the blue values of the hydrazones.Based on the results, it can be concluded that that synthesized product was different from the starting materials and that it was possible that the product was cinnamaldehyde due to the highly colored hydrazone formed. Though chemical tests were successfully done, boiling point determination of the product and melting point determination of its hydrazone were unsuccessfully performed due to the decomposition of both product and its hydrazone; however, chemical tests done and physical properties exhibited by the compound were considerable as enough indicant of the identity of the compound.Based on the readily perceivable physical characteristics of the compound produced and the results of the chemical tests performed and observed, it can be concluded that the synthesized compound was genuinely cinnamaldehyde. Based on the results of the experiment, it was proven that cinnamaldehyde, constituted primarily of trans-cinnamaldehyde, with a percent yield of 91. 6%, was successfully synthesized using the described procedure of the student.Furthermore, the procedure constructed and performed was proven to have minimized the possible side reactions which could have impeded the yield, physical properties and authenticity of the executed chemical tests. Possible sources of error in the experiment were the quality of the reagents used, intervals of dropping acetaldehyde on the mixture, lack of further purification process, lack of more evident physical and chemical characterization method for the product, efficiency of the melting point apparatus utili zed and the storage of cinnamaldehyde product for too long rior to derivatization. II. References ABOURASHED EA and KHAN IA. 2011. Leung’s Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients: Used in Food, Drugs and Cosmetics. Germany: J. Wiley and Sons. 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USA: University Science Books. MAYO D, PIKE R. and FORBES, D. 2001. Microscale Organic Laboratory: With Multistep and Multiscale Syntheses. USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. MCFARLAND, DS. 2009. CSS: The Missing Manual. 2nd Ed. USA: O’Reilly Media Inc. MCMURRY J and SIMANEK E. 2008. Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry. 6th Ed. Singapore: Thomson Learning. MOORE JT and LANGLEY RH. 2010. Organic Chemistry II for Dummies.USA: Wiley Publishing. STOKER S. 2009. General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. USA: Cengage Learning. â€Å"Cinnamaldehyde Content Foods Determined Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry†. Retrieved from APPENDIX A Randomly Selected RGB Values of Different Hydrazones Table 7. Sample RGB values of acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde and cinnamald ehyde hydrazones and their mean values. Sample No. Acetaldehyde| Benzaldehyde| Cinnamaldehyde| | Red| Green| Blue| Red| Green| Blue| Red| Green| Blue| 1| 202| 90| 52| 203| 168| 25| 185| 107| 22| 2| 189| 85| 50| 239| 170| 17| 173| 106| 53| 3| 195| 97| 58| 233| 185| 25| 185| 114| 22| 4| 206| 101| 54| 236| 171| 43| 174| 102| 18| 5| 199| 80| 40| 232| 176| 19| 173| 109| 37| 6| 201| 81| 57| 236| 181| 29| 174| 123| 40| 7| 201| 99| 59| 236| 179| 28| 170| 103| 24| 8| 198| 92| 42| 232| 178| 18| 164| 105| 45| Mean Values (decimal)| 199| 91| 52| 231| 176| 26| 175| 109| 33| Mean Values (hexadecimal)| C7| 5B| 34| E7| B0| 1A| AF| 6D| 21|APPENDIX B Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the RGB Values of the Hydrazones RED Source| DF| SS| MS| FC| FTAB| Treatment| 2| 12682. 75| 6341. 375| 90. 76086216| 3. 466800112| Error| 21| 1467. 25| 69. 86904762| | | Total| 23| 14150| | | | GREEN Source| DF| SS| MS| FC| FTAB| Treatment| 2| 32406. 08| 16203. 04| 328. 5193| 3. 4668| Error| 21| 1035. 75| 49. 32143| | | To tal| 23| 33441. 83| | | | BLUE Source| DF| SS| MS| FC| FTAB| Treatment| 2| 2888. 083| 1444. 042| 1. 039985| 3. 4668| Error| 21| 29158. 96| 1388. 522| | | Total| 23| 4899. 958| | | |